Writing an Advertising Analysis

 

          Advertisements are forms or persuasion developed by well-paid writers and consultants who combine the techniques of science and psychology with communication skill and aesthetic savvy to create powerfully moving images. Polls instruct these creators on the relative “draw” of celebrities. Should Nike continue to use Michael Jordan as its chief salesman, or should they switch to Dennis Rodman? Should designers of milk ads paint a milk-moustache on Julia Roberts or John Travolta?

 

Persuasion

 

          In persuasive writing, the true end of the persuasion is to reach accord, to bring the audience into agreement with the writer. That end is often subverted, though, by the emotional rhetoric or manipulative ploys. Advertisers study motivation and visual imagery to evoke associations linking their products with attractive or powerful personalities or with enjoyable social activities. This graphic, originally developed by Hugh Rank, illustrates how advertisers “spin” the images and product descriptions to downplay potentially negative aspects and intensify the good aspects.

 

          Other forms of persuasive essays and speeches—opinion articles, sermons, political addresses—that should move people’s minds and hearts to the truth about something likewise can become manipulative. The manipulative writer or speaker may use emotion at the expense of reason, rather than taking a balanced approach in which these elements support each other. Such writers/speakers may heighten the emotions generated by their stories, exaggerating difficulties or the solutions to the difficulties; they may embroider the real facts with made-up ones; they may try to shame you or frighten you; make you feel guilty or desperate; urge you to an action, protesting or supporting some cause, without giving you opportunity to analyze its true claims on your allegiance. This kind of manipulative persuasion at its worst is called propaganda, but any slanted or misleading attempts to persuade are unethical uses of persuasion.

 

          Persuasion and the arguments used to support it should be based on fair and valid methods of exploring issues to arrive at clarification and to establish new areas of potential agreement. Even a good purpose, such as teaching or preaching, does not justify manipulation. The human will, in the Christian view, is a gift from God that we must treat with respect. We can think of instances in history when people have been made to act against their will or their better judgment, as in the Holocaust, when German citizens were forced to conform to national policies of genocide or be punished, exiled, or put to death themselves. We see the evil of that extreme now, but we are slow to see the way we manipulate others or to see how we allow ourselves to be manipulated in the name of religion or nationalism.

 

          Examples of manipulative abuse in ads and commercials are easily found. In strictest terms, all an advertisement needs to do is inform about mutual needs and products. You need lawn or pool service, a second car, a ticket to the rock concert that’s been sold out for a month, or a temporary job until you return to college—so you announce what you need by running an ad. Or you advertise that you have something to sell that another person might need. Classified ads in newspapers accomplish this social function of announcing needs and products routinely: “For Sale, Macintosh Laptop Computer, $750” or “1968 VW Camper, runs, $500.” There is no ethical problem about honest ads, but modern advertising does more than innocent communicating when it seeks to create needs that its promoted products can then satisfy. Serving this purpose of creating needs that people did not have before, the advertising becomes ethically questionable.

 

Persuasive Techniques

 

          Television commercials and elaborate magazine advertisements deserve close scrutiny, these thirty-second “entertainments” (and the best are entertaining) and full-spread color ads are excellent examples of brief, extremely efficient, and well-designed persuasions. The artists and writers who collaborate to create such ads are adept at making associations between the thing they want to promote and positive images that may not be, in fact, related to the object being touted. Soft drink and beer commercials are nearly always set in a happy social environment, with friends picnicking at a beach or playing a game or hiking by a mountain stream. Close by are the green meadows of “Big Sky” country, where the ruggedly-handsome Marlboro man takes a smoke at sunset. The message of these commercials is never stated, but you know what response the creators are counting on: if I drink this brand of soft drink or beer, I will join the fun, no longer be an outsider. If I smoke this brand, I’ll be an independent, masculine type (or, for females—who’ve “come a long way, baby”—the slim cigarettes from Virginia declare their success). A more honest picturing of smokers would be much less appealing, but we will not see this portrait in advertisements.

 

          Humor is another technique widely used in some of the better television commercials, and it seems a healthy way to promote a product. We tend to trust a company that expresses a good sense of humor in its commercials and ads. Putting a product up as a comic prop, such as selling a brand of beer pitched by talking frogs and lizards, or a taco promoted by an adventurous little dog who speaks with an accent, leads us to believe in the company’s sincerity. We enjoy their tongue-in-cheek insouciance, but we still have to question what these humorous characters, situations, and settings have to do with the product itself. Such commercials appeal to our sense of humor so we enjoy them, but, as they do attempt to manipulate us by stimulating emotional associations that may not be valid; we must examine their claims rationally before running out to buy the product.

 

          The language, diction, of advertising also needs to be examined. Many over-the-counter health products are sold by claims suggesting they can “heal,” “protect against disease,” “relieve symptoms,” or “reduce pain.”  In many of these claims, a small, insignificant word precedes them: “may.” “May” and other words like “help” and “relieve” (called “weasel” words—words that allow someone to “weasel out” of a promise or claim) protect manufacturers from false advertising, but we are not encouraged to think about these phrases because they radically subvert the claims the manufacturers want us to hear. The first time people receive one of those sweepstake announcements, “You have just won $1,500,000,” they are exuberant for a moment. Then they read the small print just above the good news, uh-oh, weasel words: “If your entry has been chosen.” Such tactics have seriously hurt some of our elderly citizens, who naively believe what they read without reading the fine print.

 

Use of Pictures and Images

 

          This section begins your analysis of the persuasive techniques used in the ad. Look closely at the pictures, determine the techniques, and ask yourself how they promote the product. Consider the advertisers’ use of color, objects, arrangements, symbols, and people in the ad. Which items are denotative, and which are connotative? A sample paragraph analyzing a picture might look something like this:

This ad for Ford trucks depicts a blue pick-up apparently careening over the top of a dirt hill. The picture is an accurate denotation of the truck, and the small inset picture of the interior of the cab denotes a realistic view inside. Although the initial impression is one of a straightforward approach to selling the truck, a closer look reveals examples of connotation. The truck is sky blue, a color probably chosen because blue is the favorite color of most men, the target audience for this ad. Blue suggests masculinity, fitting for such a manly work-oriented vehicle; a pastel pink truck probably would not sell. With the truck apparently driving off-road at high speed, as indicated by the tires not touching the ground, there is a connotation of ruggedness and sport, and maybe even of joy riding. Such an image is intended to attract men who work hard and play hard.

 

Note: This example analyzes the picture, using critical terminology and giving specific examples from the ad. Make sure you also analyze the ad, use appropriate terminology, and include examples.

 

Use of Poetic Devices

 

          Look for examples of metaphors, similes, personification, hyperbole, rhyme, alliteration, analogy, and repetition. Quite often advertisers use these to help the consumer remember the product or catch the reader’s eye. Ask yourself why any of these devices are used and whether they are effective in attracting the intended audience. Below is a sample paragraph that analyzes language use and poetic devices:

Besides using the picture to persuade the consumer to buy this dog food, the advertisers use several techniques of language. There are some facts, some denotation, such as in “two kinds of… chunks,” however, other wording is connotative, such as “taste better.” One person’s (or dog’s) opinion about how something tastes may vary from another’s. Even the word “kibble” is an example of connotation–what is a “kibble” anyway? Poetic devices like the repetition of words such as “kibbles and chunks” and “better” help the consumer remember words the advertisers want to associate with the product. Likewise, the alliteration of “k” in “kinds of crunchy kibbles” and the “ch” in “chewy chunks” help the consumer remember the ad. The advertisers even spell “crunchy” with a “k” to help the alliteration, a rather effective tool in the language of the ad. Again, the terminology is used and examples given.

 

When you quote words or phrases from the ad, remember to put quotation marks around them.

 

Other Advertising Techniques

 

          Ads may also employ testimonials (use of a famous person) and coupons, the latter encouraging prompt action to purchase the product. Another marketing technique is to omit, distort, distract, and/or downplay possible negatives of the product, such as disadvantages, side effects, drawbacks, and dangers. Look for ambiguous language, confusing wording, and jargon or euphemisms—often indications of minimizing the product’s negative features.

 

Appeals—The same three appeals used in persuasive speeches and literature appear in ads: appeals to logic or reason (logos), appeals to emotion (pathos), and appeals to character (ethos). Appeals to reason include the appeal to authority, scientific data, case studies, and precedents. Appeals to emotion incorporate appealing to the consumer’s sense of fear, security, motherhood, fatherhood, comfort, and patriotism. Appeals to character include appealing to one’s pride, youth, appearance, health, power, prestige, and independence. Some of these subcategories can fit into more than one of the three appeals. Refer to the next section in this chapter for a more in-depth discussion of these persuasive appeals. Then look for examples of these in the pictures and the text. 

 

Logical Fallacies—Sometimes errors in logical thinking—called logical fallacies—show up in advertisements. Be aware of these tactics in advertisements, speeches, and written documents, and be careful to not make these mistakes in logic as you write or discuss issues.

 

Generalizations—based on inadequate, sparse evidence; forming a conclusion before observing sufficient or particular cases.

• faulty generalizations—based on weak, unrepresentative, or irrelevant evidence

• stereotyping—grouping without considering individual differences

• half-truths—telling only part of the truth so that the picture is distorted

• exaggeration—

 

False causes—inaccurate causes

• post hoc—assuming that because two events are related in time, the first caused the second. “George started listening to that hard rock music, and sure enough, before you knew it, he was on drugs.”

• false assumption—a conclusion that may be true but cannot be proven for a lack of hard evidence.  “She wears bifocals, so she must read a lot.”

• non sequitur—a conclusion or statement that is not based on the evidence; not a logical conclusion.

 

False analogy—making comparisons that aren’t relevant to the issue; basing proof on an analogy that is ludicrous or untenable. Mistaking an analogy for a proof, so that what is true in one situation is automatically to be taken true in the second. “Don’t fire Hank just because he pilfers goods from the store room. One bad apple doesn’t spoil the whole barrel, you know.”

• Begging the question—assuming the truth of the proposition that needs to be proven (circular argument is related). Making an unsupported assertion and expecting your audience to agree with it without proof. “How did grand opera, which is so boring, even survive beyond the Dark Ages?”

• Circular reasoning—Restating an assertion as a reason in support of the assertion; “Because Oklahoma weather is unpredictable, it is next to impossible to predict whether the next day will be sunny, rainy, snowy, or windy.”

• Self-contradiction—using two premises that cannot both be true

• Either/or (false dilemma)—two choices are incorrectly offered as the only possibilities when, in fact, there are probably more.  “You either are a jerk or you do sloppy work.”

 

Ignoring the question—raising irrelevant issues to draw attention away from the real issue

• straw man—attacking an opposition that doesn’t really exist

• red herring—introducing an issue to divert attention from the real issue

  • Emotional appeal—appealing to the audience’s sympathy rather than its reason. “Why re-elect me? Elect me because I’ve survived an assassin’s bullet and because I love America.”

  • Bandwagon appeal—encouraging someone to be like other people instead of thinking for oneself. “Don’t be left out in the cold; come join your friends at the concert.”

 

Intentionally misleading—purposing misrepresenting something

• taking something out of context—separating an idea or fact from the material surrounding it, resulting in misleading, distorted, or false information

• misquoting—incorrectly quoting someone, either accidentally or on purpose—“Reds, … is most moving and unforgettable. It approaches epic proportions.”   —Rex Reed (movie critic). The entire quotation reads, “[The movie] Reds, when it abandons historical movements for personal relationships, is most moving and unforgettable. It approaches epic proportions, but only in a ponderous, stumbling way.”   – Rex Reed (movie critic)

• ambiguity and equivocation—using expressions that are not clear because they have more than one meaning

• false authority—supporting an argument with claims by someone who is not a reliable authority on the topic in question or has lost credibility over time. “Prince Charles has chosen the Cincinnati Bengals as three-point favorites in the Super Bowl.”

 

Assignment

Writing an Ad Analysis

 

Overview

          In an essay of at least two page, analyze a half-page or full-page print advertisement (e.g., from a magazine) to reveal various devices and techniques that advertisers use to get consumers’ attention and persuade them to buy a particular product. By fulfilling this assignment, you learn how to analyze a document and demonstrate your analytical and writing skills as you look beyond the surface features and initial emotional appeals. This assignment exposes the way people use language and images to entice and manipulate others.

 

Directions

          Look closely at the language, images, and techniques used in your ad. Examine every detail from the colors to the fonts to the placement of its elements. Realize that everything in advertising is deliberate.

 

1.  Look up the devices in the table below and find examples of these devices in your ad. Not all of these are used in each ad.

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2.  You should have at least five or six paragraphs in your analysis, so follow this outline and prepare a rough draft.

a.   Introductory Paragraph—Start with general comments about advertising and work down to a thesis statement that announces your assertion about this advertisement. Because this assignment is an analysis and not a critique, avoid commenting on the quality of the ad with phrases such as “This ad is effective because…” or “Using Tiger Woods in this ad seems odd since he is not a tennis player.” In other words, avoid stating your opinions about the advertisement.

• Remember to state the name of the product in the introductory paragraph.

• Here’s a sample thesis statement: “This ad for Nike Air Hype basketball shoes uses dazzling visual effects, a famous athlete, and youthful language to persuade young sports-minded males to buy this shoe”

• Here’s a sample intro paragraph (minus the thesis statement): “No one who does not live in isolation can escape advertising; it appears everywhere from billboards to cereal boxes. Even riders of elevators must share the elevator car with ads on screens or playing on the radio. Some gas station pumps even have advertising printed on the pump handles or on television screens on the pumps themselves. What consumers must realize is that advertiser spend millions in an attempt to sell products, and they take their work very seriously. Few people think about the devices advertisers use to manipulate consumers, but such devices assault consumes daily.”

b.   Paragraph on the analysis of images and pictures—Start your paragraph with a topic sentence and then discuss how the images and pictures are used in the advertisement. (Look back at the table above to remind yourself of the literary devices used in the images and pictures of your ad.) Remember to mention, by name, the literary devices that appear in your ad. You must be specific and give specific examples. Simply saying that your ad contains them is not enough; you must explain how and why the advertisers use them.

• Avoid using first-person pronouns ("I," "we," "us," "our," etc.) and second-person pronouns (“you,” “your”).

• If you refer to the advertising company or the ad agency (e.g., “The advertising company uses bright colors to …”), keep in mind that these are a singular noun, so its correct pronoun is “its,” not “their.” Only use “they” and “their” if you’re using the plural noun “the advertisers.”

• Even though the ad agency created this ad in the past, the ad still exists, so use present tense verbs, NOT past tense, in your analysis essay.

c.   Paragraph on diction and language—Follow the instructions for paragraph II above, but this time, focus on the literary devices your ad uses in the language and diction (wording).

• Here’s a sample of the beginning of an analysis paragraph: “In addition to suing dazzling visual effects, the ad employs informal language aimed at its target audience—young males. Thus, slang abounds in this ad; “Yolo” and “selfie” appear in the dialogue between ….”

 

d.   Paragraph on poetic devices—Follow the instructions for paragraph II above, but this time, focus on the poetic devices your ad, such as personification and allusion.

 

e.   Paragraph on ad devices (if any)—Follow the instructions for paragraph II above, but this time, focus on ad devices, such as a coupon or “scratch and sniff” product sample. If there are no ad devices or just one, then you won’t need to write this paragraph. If there is just one (e.g., a BOGO offer), you can put that information in the language and diction paragraph.

 

f.    Conclusion—Bring the analysis to a finish. Restate the thesis but not word for word as it appears in your introduction. Remember that you should not give your opinion about the effectiveness of the ad or whether you like the ad. An ad analysis looks at the components of the ad; however, it should not evaluate the components or the entire ad. Thus, your analysis should not include words such as “good” or “effective.”

 

3.  After you finish writing your rough draft, let it sit for a day or two before you revise it to submit to your teacher. Those days away from your writing enable you to revise it with fresh eyes so that you’re more likely to find weaker passages that would benefit from revising. This is also the time to look back at the instructions for writing this ad analysis so you can correct any omissions or errors.